Kant’s ‘Copernican Revolution’

Describe Kant’s ‘Copernican Revolution’ and explain (and outline) how he hopes it will give rise to synthetic apriori knowledge. Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason [1781] was birthed out of the Leibnizian-Wolff tradition. He rejected this tradition due to a dislike of the principles of Sufficient Reason and Non-Contradiction. Although much of the Critique can be read as a spirited attack on this tradition, Kant’s real catalyst for the writing the Critique was the empiricist David Hume, and the way one reads the Critique is informed by the awareness of the Critique as a duel attack.The creation of the ‘synthetic a priori’ and the ‘Copernican Revolution’ that gave rise to it are both conversant of this attack. This essay aims to outline and defend how the ‘Copernican Revolution’ evolved and how this ‘metaphysical revolution’ formed the concept of the ‘synthetic a priori’. In the Preface to th e Critique Kant describes metaphysics as once being the ‘queen of all sciences’ (A ix). Yet, despite this, he argues that reason in metaphysics fails to have the stability of mathematics or natural science.The conflict of Newtonian science with Leibnizian metaphysics, rationalism with empiricism, and natural science with morality and religion, are all instances of metaphysics as a ‘battle ground’ (Gardner 1999: 20). Kant argues that: â€Å"If the various participants are unable to agree in any common plan of procedure, then we may rest assured that it is very far from having entered upon the secure path of a science, and is indeed a merely random groping† (B vii).For Kant, the natural sciences and mathematics are in contrast to metaphysics because the former have undergone a peculiar process of stability. Kant adheres to a ‘Maker’s Knowledge Thesis’, which argues that a subject has supreme (a priori) knowledge of an object, if the y are the maker of that object or able to reproduce it. Thus, maths has a priori status because we can construct mathematical objects ourselves. He affects to reproduce an analogous revolution in metaphysics.At†¦Kant gives his ‘Copernican Revolution’ of metaphysics: â€Å"Hitherto it has been assumed that all our knowledge must conform to objects. But all attempts to extend our knowledge of objects by establishing something in regard to them a priori, by means of concepts, have, on this assumption, ended in failure. We must therefore make trial whether we may not have more success in the tasks of metaphysics, if we suppose that objects must conform to our knowledge.This would agree better with what is desired, namely, that it should be possible to have knowledge of objects a priori, determining something in regard to them prior to their being given† (B xvi). The ‘Copernican Revolution’ attempts a compromise between the optimistic Leibnizian real ists, who argue that we can have objective (a priori) knowledge of the external world through the Principle of Sufficient Reason and the Humean sceptics, who argue that we can have no knowledge beyond immediate experience.By a ‘Copernican Revolution’, Kant intends a complete overhaul of what has previously been taken as objective fact: like Copernicus explained the ‘objective’ movement of the sun by the subjective movement of the observer on earth, Kant explains our knowledge of ‘objective’ external objects in terms of our subjective modes of cognition (Gardener 1999: 42). On the ‘Maker’s Knowledge Thesis’, for an agent to have a priori metaphysical knowledge, they must have at least partially formed a sum of that knowledge.Kant claims that this is achieved by the input of our cognitive faculties on what we observe. Some critics question how Kant’s ‘revolution’ does not merely collapse into an account of Berkeley’s mind-dependence, that we ‘create’ the external objects in our own minds (Gardener 1999: 43). But Kant is not idealist in the way that Berkeley is, to say that the subject ‘forms’ the object by the modes of their cognition, is not to say that objects are the creation of our representations.Kant does hold that there are objective external objects in the world, he merely denies that we can know them as such. He makes a distinction between objects as they appear to us and objects as they are in themselves. Locke makes a similar distinction between what he called the ‘primary’ and ‘secondary’ qualities. In his Essay Concerning Human Understanding, he argued that the secondary qualities such as an object’s colour, smell etc. is fundamentally different from their ‘primary’ qualities such as their size or extension.The secondary qualities are things that can be known by the observer, but not as a prope rty of the thing in its self, whereas primary qualities are independent of whoever is observing them, and are properties of the thing as it is in itself. Kant’s distinction is even more limited insofar as he does not think that any of the properties Locke describes as ‘primary’ are properties of an object in its self. He believes that all we can know of an object in its self is that it exists. If the fact that an object exists is all that we could ever know of an object in itself, then a rationalist perspective would hold that this s all we can ever know of that object (full stop) because they believe that knowledge conforms to the object. However, because Kant believes that the object conforms to knowledge, he also believes that we can know other things about the object through the faculties of our cognition. We can never have knowledge of a thing its self because we cannot have ‘Maker’s Knowledge’ of such a thing, but we can have ‘Make r’s knowledge’ of a thing as it appears to us because we ‘form’ these appearances with our own cognition. These are what Kant terms ‘synthetic a priori’ judgements.Kant distinguishes â€Å"cognitions a priori†¦ from empirical ones, which have their sources a posteriori, namely in experience† (Guyer 2006: 45). An analytic judgment is one in which â€Å"the predicate B belongs to the subject A as something that is contained in this concept A† (Guyer 2006: 46). They are concepts known through identity, such as ‘All bachelors are married men’. By contrast, synthetic judgements are those in which â€Å"the predicate B lies entirely outside the concept A, although to be sure it stands in connection with it† (ibid).Championed by Hume, the orthodox view of the time was that while analytic judgements can be known a priori, given the fact that they can be immediately experienced and understood if you can understand the composite meaning of the proposition, synthetic judgements could only ever be understood a posteriori. A posteriori cognitions are merely based on the experience of an object and a synthetic judgement such as ‘this macbook is white’ can only ever be known by looking at the object (macbook) and a posteriori judging it to have a certain property (whiteness).Kant disagreed with this Humean reasoning, and while he accepted that there could not be an analytic a posteriori, he did think that there could be synthetic a priori cognitions. Kant blames the instability of metaphysics on the fact that the possibility of ‘synthetic a priori’ judgments has never been considered. In the Preface of the Critique Kant argues that the ‘real’ problem of pure reason is â€Å"contained in the question: How are synthetic judgements a priori possible? † (Gardener 1999). He makes an initial concession to the empiricists insofar as all knowledge necessarily ‘begins with’ experience.However, he argues that from this it does not necessarily follow that all of our knowledge be derived from such experience (it may, conversely, be derived a priori) (Gardener 1999: 53). Kant argues in the Introduction of the Critique that â€Å"if we find a proposition such that in thinking it we think at the same time its necessity, then it is an a priori judgment; and if, in addition, it is not derived from any proposition except one that itself has the validity of a necessary proposition, then it is absolutely a priori† (B3).Kant presupposes that we have this kind of knowledge: we have a priori knowledge of mathematical objects, and the principle of causation has ‘strict universality’ (Gardener 1999: 53). However, Kant does not regard these as analytic. Instead, Guyer argues that â€Å"[f]or Kant, all the fundamental propositions of philosophy as well as the contents of pure mathematics and even the basic principles of na tural science are nothing less than synthetic a priori cognitions† (Guyer 2006: 47).Kant argues that the term ‘synthetic’, when applied to judgments, â€Å"has a double sense of connecting a predicate with a concept in which it is not contained, and of presupposing a corresponding act of synthesis or putting together on the part of the subject† (Gardener 1999: 55). This is the act of ‘transcendental synthesis’. This process is significant when considering the a priori. Kant argues that although some concepts are indeed analytical, such as ‘all bachelors are married men’, concepts such as ‘every cause has an effect’ are not.Such concepts are a priori by virtue of being necessary, but they are also synthetic because they intend to add something to the sum of human knowledge. According to Kant, any informative concept must also be synthetic (Gardener 1999: 56). Because of this, Rawls advances two analytically distinct cri teria for analyticity: a judgement is analytic if (1) Its truth can be determined on the basis of conceptual considerations or the meaning of its composite terms; (2) â€Å"if it is self-evidently true rather than such as to extend our knowledge† (Gardener 1999: 61).These criteria have lead critics to argue that Kant confuses two different versions of the analytic/synthetic distinction; the first definition of analyticity encompasses what Kant calls ‘synthetic a priori’ because they would be true for conceptual reasons. However, These critics fail to give an account of how conceptual considerations are intended to extend knowledge the way that the synthetic a priori entails.Some critics argue that Kant’s method of proving the existence of synthetic a priori judgments is analytic, an argument of regress from the effect back to its cause. By arguing as such, they thus accuse Kant of presupposing the very thing he is intending to prove. Guyer argues that â₠¬Å"[o]f course, if one doubts that mathematics and physics do contain synthetic a priori cognition, then the use of this analytic or regressive method to arrive at further metaphysical truths is in trouble from the outset† (Guyer 2006: 48).Kant admits that his methodology is analytical in the Prolegomena, however, in the first edition Kant argues that his process was synthetic, by inquiring within pure reason itself. In the Preface Kant argues that his objective is â€Å"to demonstrate and make comprehensible the objective validity of his concepts a priori†. In the Introduction to the First Edition Kant argues that reason â€Å"†¦finds itself compelled to resort to principles that go beyond all possible use in experience, and that nonetheless seem so little suspect that even common human reason agrees with them.By doing this, however, human reason plunges into darkness and contradictions; and although it can indeed gather from these that they must be based on erro rs lying hidden somewhere, it is unable to discover these errors†¦[t]he combat of these endless conflicts is what we call metaphysics† (A viii). The ‘Copernican Revolution’ is the way Kant attempts to prove the possibility of synthetic a priori knowledge without flying off into ungrounded metaphysics (Guyer 2006: 49). If we assume that the sensory representations and conceptual organisation of objects is contained only in experience, then knowledge can never be more than a posteriori.But, if we discover cognitive ‘forms’ of these representations and organisations, then we know that nothing can ever be an object of knowledge without being subject to these forms, and thus that these ‘forms’ necessarily apply to the objects of our knowledge and therefore must constitute synthetic a priori judgments (Guyer 2006: 49-50). Bibliography: Gardner, Sebastian (1999) â€Å"Kant and the Critique of Pure Reason†, London: Routledge. Guyer, P aul (2006) â€Å"Kant†, Oxon: Routledge. Kant, Immanuel (Pluhar, Werner: Translator) (1996) â€Å"Critique of Pure Reason†, USA: Hackett Publishing Company.

How to make the world a better place to live in Essay

There is nothing which can be done to totally improve the world’s condition presently. However, there is something which can de done for the betterment of the world’s condition. The main point which could affect the condition of the world is Education. Education provides people with knowledge, communication skills, discipline, and also with dignity. â€Å"Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one† said Malcolm Forbes. The supporting idea which could improve the world’s current situation is Religion. Religion provides people with a belief system consisting of discipline, tradition, culture, and morality. Matthew Arnold had said that â€Å"the true meaning of religion is thus not simply morality, but morality touched with emotion†. Last thing that might help is looking at the world in a social aspect. Being social gives us a more understanding character, and it gives us more information about the current issues which at least makes us not ignorant, and it also makes us more open to people. If a person has knowledge, good communication skills, discipline, dignity, a belief system consisting of traditions, cultures, and moral values, understanding, not ignorant, and more open, than that person could cause no harm or trouble to anyone. If billions of people view the world as an educational, religious, and also a social place, then the condition of the world would be greatly improved and would be a â€Å"heaven† to some people. Today, people have no time to do anything. They are so busy working that they don’t even know what is going on around them. All they want to do is to earn money. Money is everything for everyone these days. Money brings happiness to people nowadays, which is totally wrong. Money can never bring peace in anyone’s life. Money can actually ruin a persons’ life by bringing jealousy, and proud into that person. If a person has a lot of money, he tends to have more power on others, which usually leads to an evil act or a selfish act. Billions of people look at the world in an economic view which is the cause of all the politics tensions, wars, and all different kinds of riots and disasters. However, if people look at the world in different aspects, the world could be a better place to live in. â€Å"Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one† said Malcolm Forbes. Education can improve the world’s condition greatly. Without  Education, people would just live like cavemen and cavewomen. They will have no idea about anything. If everyone in this world is educated, there would be fewer problems in the world for example, over population. Education provides people with knowledge, communication skills, discipline, and also with dignity. From knowledge, we learn, understand, and analyze. We need to learn in order to know how things work. We understand by the learning and by all this learning and understanding, we can analyze things. From good communication skills, we tend to communicate well with others with created a better understanding between others. From discipline, people get self-control. Having self-control is always good because you know how and when to act. Lastly, from dignity, people learn how to respect themselves which brings in them an optimistic view. Education can provide all these qualities in a person. Education can make the world’s condition better which would create fewer problems in the world. â€Å"The true meaning of religion is thus not simply morality, but morality touched with emotion† said Matthew Arnold. Religion could also improve the condition of the world with the support of education. Without religion, people would have no belief system or any traditions and cultures. People would not have any history of their own backgrounds and their ethnic values. A religion teaches us what is good and what is bad for us. Religion provides people with a belief system consisting of discipline, tradition, culture, and morality. We need a belief system in order to keep a systematic schedule between work and also personal life. We need discipline because we need self-control. Having self-control is always good because you know how and when to act. We need traditions and cultures because without traditions and cultures, we will just live out lives as a robot. We will not have any festivals and will not believe in anyone or God. Traditions and cultures affect the way we look at things and also affect our thinking. Our traditions and cultures make us act as we do. Lastly, religion provides us with moral values. We need moral values in order to know what is good and what is bad for us. Without religion, we are nothing but just a bunch of people looking at the world in a very practical view with results in selfishness. Supported with education, and religion, looking at the world in a social aspect also helps to improve the world’s condition. If a person is not socially involved, it is likely that that person would have fewer knowledge of what is going on around the world as that person would not discuss about current affairs with others. That person would also not know other people properly which could results in disaster especially during bad times when you need someone’s help. Being social gives us a more understanding character, and it gives us more information about the current issues which at least makes us not ignorant, and it also makes us more open to people. You need to be more understanding in order for you to make good relationship with other people which make it easier to be socially involved. If you are more understanding, people will tend to talk to you more, which could result in being open with other people. Being socially involved can be very enjoyable yet also could be very beneficial. If billions of people view the world as an educational, religious, and also a social place, then the condition of the world would be greatly improved and would be a â€Å"heaven† to some people. Education provides people with knowledge, communication skills, discipline, and also with dignity. Religion provides people with a belief system consisting of discipline, tradition, culture, and morality. Being social gives us a more understanding character, and it gives us more information about the current issues which at least makes us not ignorant, and it also makes us more open to people. If a person has knowledge, good communication skills, discipline, dignity, a belief system consisting of traditions, cultures, and moral values, understanding, not ignorant, and more open, than that person could cause no harm or trouble to anyone. Education is needed because it makes a person who he/she really is and what his/her capabilities are. Religion is needed because it is necessary for every individual in a society. Being social is needed in order for your own recognition in a society. Every person needs to be educated, religious, and also social. These are the three aspects of life. Billions of people’s life could be enhanced if everyone views this world in these three aspects.

african history essays research papers

We all can relate to changing schools or even starting school for the first time. One who has never experienced this can only imagine being of a different culture, speaking a different language, looking differently and being the â€Å"new kid.† Lucero best describes this when she states, â€Å"Made conscious of the â€Å"otherness† of Indians, my world began to divide into a world of Us and Them.† Ortiz tells about her struggle in school to not speak a language he was accustoming to. â€Å"Children in school were punished and looked upon with disdain if they did not speak and learn English quickly and smoothly.† (30) He also uses the words â€Å"corporal punishment† and â€Å"ostracism† to describe the feeling, and possibly real, threats he lived with if he did not abide by the rules being forced on them. (30) This would be more than enough for any one to rebel, but he did not. One thing that stood out in his description of what he was enduri ng was the love he had for language. He states, â€Å"I loved language, the sound, meaning, and magic of language.† (30)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lucero connected with me she was telling about her adventure of seeing snow for the first time, and the different structures of the houses for what she was use to in her community. If one had not seen a paved road in their life, it would be a strange site. (30) The thought of what these people endured should enrage most of us. Think about our children being called â€Å"stupid Indian/savages.† There would be some one fighting in the street or some one suing some one else. Who could these people fight, an entire nation? Who would they sue, the government? It has been made clear that most of these people’s rights had been taken away. They were forced to conform or be ridiculed. Ortiz says it best with â€Å"†¦ the intent of U.

Modernism and Postmodernism - 20th & 21st Century Visual and Material Essay

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The Underlying Theory of Fingerprinting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

The Underlying Theory of Fingerprinting - Essay Example The underlying theory regarding the practice of fingerprinting is the concept that no two people in the world possessed identical sets of fingerprints (Zhang, 2001; Epstein, 2002; Specter, 2002; Kumar & Shama, 2009; Cole, 2001, 2005; Leibhan, 2003). This particular theory is the guiding principle with which developments pertinent to fingerprinting has been pursued. In this regard, the following are the findings of the research. First, the concept of fingerprinting as a mechanism for purposes of identification has been known since the ancient period (Specter, 2002; Cole 2001). However, the current trend of utilizing fingerprinting for purposes of identifying, investigating and solving crimes is a current advancement in the field, which is brought about by developments in science and technology together with the condition of increased mobility of people (Sombat, 2006; Cole, 2005; Epstein, 2002). This conceptual finding is significant because it highlights the fact that first, fingerprinting is a recognized tool that a can be used for identification regardless of genre or period in history. Second, from the historical rooting of fingerprinting one can impugned that fingerprinting has been adopted as early as the nineteenth century for criminal investigation. Finally, third, the contemporary concept of fingerprinting is a result of the coming together of science, technology, judiciary, increased mobility of peo ple brought about by globalisation and demands in the contemporary society. This figure shows that the current understanding of fingerprinting is a result of the coming together of several factors that can be rooted from the historical tradition that has been traced in this research.

Appeal letter Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

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Politics of the knowledge Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Politics of the knowledge - Essay Example Moreover, it crates diverse outlining mechanism of the societal, communicative coupled with chronological references. Constructivist makes this story to be radical, inventive and popular thus conforming to the modern approach of the societal science. Majority of the populace prefer truth-possessing evidence coupled with diverse comprehension. Traditions are methodological that share healthy skepticism of inductivism of knowledge and truth. Inductivism emphasizes on the significance of precise experimental element of the underlying story. Moreover, there is no substitute for an analyst’s knowledge with a data in historical learning of practical influence (Carr, 1987). Above argument is evident in the elaboration of the theory of the epistemic justification and understanding of The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks by Rebecca. All aspects of the chapter aid in understanding despite the existence of competing ideas. Constructivism aids in inserting studies into a bigger social scientific projects. Chapter 8 gives distinct description of the diverse methods , which readers can comprehend the patterns of the

EU Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

EU Law - Essay Example According to the research Non-Profit Orgnizations such as Animal Protection Association (APA) cannot be considered an independent entity within the context of Article 34 since it receives substantial funding from Sagoland’s Ministry of Environment geared to promote activities having as their objective and effect to reduce the demand for wares sourced from another Member State. The measures were attributable to the Sagoland primarily because APA initiated the Animal Protection Mark (APM) at the behest of the Sagoland; its failure to arrest members of the APA found to have committed illegal acts such as threats, coercion, blockade of roads, burning of lorry and other similar activities. The enactment of Sagoland of a national policy prohibiting fur farming and restricting the entry of fur products in its territory is indeed a hindrance to competition. It is clear that its intention is to impede, prevent or reduce patronage of products source from other Member States which is con trary to the EU’s objective of a single and integrated market. This would promote locally produce products giving it undue economic advantage. Thus, the act of Sagoland falls within the prohibition of Article 34 TFEU. Measures of another Member State to protect the health and life of the animals found in the other Member State cannot be justified under Article 36 TFEU. National law of Sagoland intended to protect the life and health of animals found outside its jurisdiction do not have extra-territorial application. Scandonia likewise violates the principle of mutuality because the member state cannot use their quantitative restrictions and laws in another state. Another basis is the principles of proportionality were not fulfilled where the means employed to achieve the objectives must not go beyond what is necessary. Lastly, public morality is not a sufficient justification to restrict the importation of goods to and from another Member State. III a.) In the case of Mr. Zac k, and Henrietta L’s relationship, it is clear that the promoter contract governs the relationship of the two. Mr. Zack’s action of purchasing additional products from Henrietta’s website will not transform that relationship since the purchase of the product supports the promoter contract. As its ambassador Mr. Zack is compelled to only use and endorse Henrietta’s products, purchasing Henrietta’s product from its website supports this relationship since as the endorser Mr. Zack cannot use or purchase other products. b.) Henrietta’s website was meant to only cater to customers within Scandinionia. The website’s disclaimer declared and intimated as much and the use of the LAX currency as the only currency entertained by the websites absolutely proves this position not to mention the use of Scandinionian as one of its language. The use of a primary domain name by the website and the use of English is of no moment since the content and in tent of the website is only meant to cater to customers within Scandinionia as proven by its disclaimer and the use of LAX as the only means of payment. The disclaimer is sufficient in form and in substance, therefore it cannot be considered as an unfair item in a binding contract. It should be noted that the disclaimer was not ambiguous and it was conspicuously displayed within the website. PLEADINGS FOR HENRIETTA L I. a) GOVERNMENT ACTION IN FAVOR OF APA ESTABLISHES PUBLIC MEASURE Animal Protection Association (APA) is a non-profit organization founded according to the Law of Non Profit Associations in Sagoland. Although it is established denoting a social objective, it cannot be considered an independent entity within the context of Article 34 since APA receives substantial funding from Sagoland’s Ministry of Environment geared to promote activities having as their objective and effect to reduce the demand for wares sourced from another Member State. The issue arose when S agoland implemented a measure to ban fur farming and to dismantle existing fur farms in its territory. Following the implementation

The Principle of Parliamentary Sovereignty Research Paper

The Principle of Parliamentary Sovereignty - Research Paper Example The principle of parliamentary sovereignty was held high in Jackson v Attorney-General by Lord Bingham. Jackson v Attorney-General was a pivotal House of Lords case that brings to fore the legality of the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 in the context of banning fox hunting by passing the Hunting Act 2004. The Hunting Act 2004 was passed while ascribing to section 2 of the Parliament Act 1911, which was amended by section 1 of Parliament Act 1949, in the sense that the Act was passed sans the consent of the House of Lords after the expiry of the prescribed delay. In that sense, Jackson v Attorney-General stood to be an important case lies within the scope of the principle of parliamentary sovereignty. Within the sphere of the parliamentary sovereignty, Jackson v Attorney-General raised the question raised the questions regarding the validity of all the legislation passed under 1949 Parliament Act as the appellants argued that the Hunting Act passed under the 1949 Parliament Act was inv alid, because the parent act was passed while ascribing to the 1911 Act, a privilege that the 1911 Act never intended to allow. Since the Enrolled Bill Doctrine enunciated that the courts of law could not look into the procedural aspects of passed legislation, the bigger question that this case raised was that whether it was allowable to courts to challenge an Act passed by the Parliament. Lord Hope put an end to this controversy by referring to the principle of pre-enactment practice when he said that: â€Å"The political reality is that of general acceptance by all the main parties and by both Houses of the amended timetable which the 1949 Act introduced.

Thorstein Veblen Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

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Language Obervation Essay Example for Free

Language Obervation Essay Setting: The observation took place in the child’s home. The child’s home is a semi-detached house in a housing estate Immediate Context: This observation took place in the kitchen. TC is seated at the kitchen table finishing his homework. His father is nearby washing up at the sink. The observation took place at 2.30 in the afternoon. An hour after TC returned home from school. TC’s brother and sister are running around the kitchen while another brother is sitting at the table playing Lego. Name of Child: TC Brief description of the child: TC is a male aged 6 years and 5 months. He has been in school since September 12 months ago. He has one older brother (aged nine) three young brothers (twin 3 year olds and a 2 year old) he has  a younger sister also (aged 2 years). Because of the number in his family he is very active and talkative. Aim of observation: The aim of this observation is to observe TC for a period of time of 10 minutes in order to assess his language development. Observation: TC is sitting on a chair at the kitchen table finishing off his homework he is drawing objects that begin with â€Å"I†. He asks how to spell ice-cream, igloo and ice as these are the shapes he’s drawing. He takes out a sheet filled with words to learn. He is now looking at his words and pronouncing them. TC has finished his homework and packed away his bag. He takes out a sheet a paper. TC - A â€Å"Daddy how do you spell IGLOO?† A - TC â€Å" I-G-L-O-O† TC - A â€Å"How do you spell ICE?† A - TC â€Å"I-C-E† TC - A â€Å"How do you spell ICE-CREAM† A - TC â€Å"Well you already have ice on your page copy that first† TC - A â€Å"but I need to spell ice-cream† A - TC â€Å" Write down ICE then put a – then put C-R-E-AM† TC - A â€Å"Okay† A - TC â€Å"Are you finished now Ois?† TC - A â€Å"Where’s Mammy Daddy?† A - TC â€Å"Show me, what it is?† TC - A â€Å"No it’s for Mammy, not you; you won’t know what to do with it!† A - TC â€Å"ok she’ll be here in a minute she’s gone to the bathroom† A1 - TC â€Å"what’s wrong Oision?† TC - A1 â€Å"this is a letter for you from teacher† A1 - TC â€Å"what’s it about?† TC - A1 â€Å"The parent teacher meeting† A1 - TC â€Å"ok what have I to do with it?† TC - A1 â€Å"you have to read it and fill it out for teacher† A1 - TC â€Å"oh right okay you go on and play so, good boy† Evaluation: The aim of this observation was to observe and record the language of TC, a six year old boy, for fifteen minutes as he finished his homework and engaged in conversation with his parents in order to gain a better understanding of his language development. I feel that I achieved this aim very well and that generally TC’s language development appears to be within the normal range for his age. Certainly, TC’s word pronunciation is accurate. He does make little errors tough e.g. he says â€Å"ate† for â€Å"eight†. This is usual for his stage of development. While children between four and five years pronounce most words correctly, they â€Å"may show some immature sound substitutions† (Flood 2010) One of the theorists I have studied is Skinner (1957), Skinner believed â€Å"that  learning, including language learning, occurs as a result of reinforcement.† Another theorist I have studied is Bruner(1915-). Bruner believed first-hand experience allows children to develop their ideas and thinking, he called this â€Å"enactive thinking†. Bruner stress the importance of the child’s environment in language development. He believes â€Å"The adults and more able peers in a child’s life provide what he calls a language acquisition support system (LASS).† Motherese, recasting, expanding and labelling all part of this system . Key stage of language development Gross Motor Skills †¢ Child tries to understand the meaning of words. The child uses adverbs and prepositions. The child talks confidently, and with more and more fluency. †¢ The child uses language creatively. The child adds vocabulary all the time. †¢ The child is an explorer and communicator; he or she begins to be able to define objects by their function – for example, â€Å"what is a bicycle† â€Å"you cycle a bicycle†. Fine Motor Skills †¢ A young child does not learn well in isolation from other children and adults. The child begins to share as he or she learns. Sharing sharpens and broadens the child’s thinking. This helps the child to learn better – for example, he begins to understand book language, and that stories have characters and a plot (the narrative). †¢ The child begins to realise that different situations require different ways of talking. The child establishes a sense of audience (who he or she is talking to). In summary, TC’s language development in terms of both fine and gross motor skills seems to be just on target and have reached the developmental milestones expected for his age. Personal Learning Gained †¢ I learned more about children’s language development. I know understand the terminology of â€Å"labelling†, â€Å"semantics†, â€Å"syntax†, â€Å"recasting† and â€Å" expanding†. †¢ I learned that in order to do so accurately, a tape recording with transcription is advisable. References †¢ Child Care Education (5th Edition) (Bruce, Meggit, Grenier) Hodder Education †¢ Planning Play and the Early Years (2nd Edition) (Penny Tassoni, Karen Hucker) Heinemann †¢ Child Development for Students in Ireland (Eilis Flood) GillMacmillan †¢ Education Care in the Early Years (4th Edition) (Josephine Donohue Frances Gaynor) GillMacmillan

Community College Students Essay Example for Free

Community College Students Essay Often times, community college students are depicted by the public and the media as â€Å"not smart enough† or â€Å"not capable. † For example, just recently I was at Barnes and Noble and as I was looking for a book the sales associate approached me. She asked me if I needed help then asked me what school I attended, when I told her that I go to Fullerton College her attitude changed. She asked me if I didn’t go to a four year university because of my grades, when I told her that, that wasn’t the reason she went on ranting that I need to do good in school and I shouldn’t be at a community college. It seems that the public look down on the students at community college. When watching the show, â€Å"Blue Mountain State,† you have a group of friends that happen to be on the universities football team. On the show is portrays the typical university life and the football players engage in heavy drinking, drugs and lots of sex. If a four university is offering that then what is so good about going to one? Often times you hear about crazier parties thrown by universities rather than community colleges. Universities are supposed to be prestigious but these huge parties are throwing them off. Many times the public says that community college is no good because of its parties with drugs, they say that’s why no students should aim for community colleges but statistics say that universities throw the biggest parties. Who are the bad guys now? Recent talk on the website collegeconfidential. om, students talk about how their parents do not want their kids to go to a community college. This is a website for real people with answers from people who have had the experiences. A student just recently posted that his parents did not want him to go to a community college because they are no good. Many people were quick to respond to his post, most of the people who replied were adults who have had the experience, even some professors, and they told him that community college is not bad at all. The responders replied by saying that ommunity college has great professors and are cheaper than a four year university. Of course at a four year university you will get a bit better education, but for those who cannot afford the fees it is great for them. For example, a user , â€Å"NTKTOP,† posted this comment. â€Å"My parents say that they suck and that theyre going to kick me out of the house if I go to one. † This student sees nothing wrong with community college but his parents do, then this is what one San Diego State University graduate had to say, â€Å"I dont think theyre bad. Of course, it depends on the school you choose and professor you get, but thats the same of any traditional school. CC can be a good jumping board for some people. No matter where you go, you will find easy professors but in my experience CC is a not a bad choice. † This is my second semester in a community college; so far everything has been going good. The professors I have had are not very difficult but do not give easy grades. Last semester I had a Spanish class that was for advanced speakers but there were some things that did not click in my mind. My professor would stay with me after class to try and help me to better understand the material. This semester my math class has tutors that they offer for free. I take advantage of these resources because they are free and the professors are willing to help me out without any problem. The stories I hear from my friends in community college are that they have teachers that care for the student’s education; they do not give easy grades just because we are in community college. Many professors want to further our knowledge and prepare us for our transfer to a university. No matter where you go, you will get a great education. The United States is known worldwide for its prestigious schools. A big part has to come from the students, if the student is willing to put in the time, dedication and effort their possibilities are endless. So far, community college has been a great experience for me. I have great professors who are always able to help out. The media tries to pick on community colleges but in reality, it is a great choice in this economy. Many students that leave a four year university have a huge debt to pay because of loans. Many students choose community college because it is a fraction of the cost of a university. I do not think it is fair when parents judge community colleges as bad; you can get a good education for a very affordable price. You can go to a community college such as Fullerton College, which has great professors, to get your general education classes out of the way for a low price then transfer to a four year university to mainly focus on your degree classes.

The Advantages And Shortcomings Of Daisyworld Philosophy Essay

The Advantages And Shortcomings Of Daisyworld Philosophy Essay Topic Selected: The advantages and shortcomings of Daisyworld as an analogue for the real earth system. The aim of this paper is to try and establish whether Daisyworld is an appropriate model of the real earth system, to analyse the debate between academics and in turn to discern wheather any part of Daisyworld and indeed Gaia hold any merit. Background : Daisyworld is a hypothetical model without the presence of greenhouse gases or an atmosphere. Originally consisted of two types of daises white reflecting light and black absorbing light. Later models introduced additional factors into the environment such as foxes, rabbits and other species. The main purpose of the Daisyworld system was to illustrate the crediblity of the Gaia Hypothesis. This proposes all organisms and their surroundings are interconnected to each other, creating a single, regulated system maintaining conditions for life . The original Daisyworld system was criticised for being both a rigid and narrow focused system. Since then Daisyworld has been reassessed, evolving into a more complex comprehensive system. Instead of the two fixed daisy species, many additional species were introduced including herbivores and carnivores through three tropic levels with common examples being rabbits and foxes. (Rabbits and foxes mentioned twice, possibly remove 2nd reference?)(Lovelock,2009) Advantages: Daisyworld demonstrates a simple analogue system, explaining the basic principle of Gaia and how every process has (causes instead of has) an action or reaction (couplings). Although Daisyworld can be perceived as lacking evidentionary support, the daisies show symbiosis with their environment, (but) if one species diminishes (and is) unable to survive with environment changes another species can thrive taking its place or niche. These components within the Daisyworld model can be seen in the earth system, however Daisyworld is often dismissed as a too simplified representation of natural selection. In response to critcism, Lovelocks paper A numerical model of biodiversity further expands this model by allowing the organism to mutate spontaneously. Lovelock states that both his paper and work conducted by Tim Lenton and Stephan Hardling back this theory and this more comprehensive system goes towards explaining the relationship between biodiversity and planet regulation. (Lovelock,1992) Furthermore within The vanishing face of Gaia Lovelock outlines at least ten predictions that were proposed in Gaia theory in the 1990s (proposed within Gaia theory), that (remove that) of which eight of them have been confirmed or accepted. (Lovelock,1992) (wrong ref, should be 2009) Prediction Test Result Mars is lifeless (1968) Atmospheric compositional evidence shows lack of disequilibrium Strong confirmation, Viking mission 1975 That elements are transferred from ocean to land by biogenic gases (1971) Search for oceanic sources of dimethyl sulphide and methyl iodide Found 1973 Climate regulation through biologically enhanced rock weathering (1973) Analysis of iceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ core data linking temperature and CO2 abundance Confirmed 2008, by Zeebe and Caldeira That Gaia is aged and is not far from the end of its lifespan (1982) Calculation based on generally accepted solar evolution Generally accepted Climate regulation through cloud albedo control linked to algal gas emissions (1987) Many tests have been made but the excess of pollution interferes Probable for southern hemisphere Oxygen has not varied by more than 5 per cent from 21 per cent for the past 200 million years (1974) Iceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ core and sedimentary analysis Confirmed for up to 1 million years ago Boreal and tropical forest are part of global climate regulation Models and direct observation Generally accepted Biodiversity a necessary part of climate regulation (1992) By models but not yet in the natural ecosystems Jury still out The current interglacial is an example of systems failure in a physiological sense (1994) By models only Undecided The biological transfer of selenium from the ocean to the land as dimethyl selenide Direct measurements Confirmed 2000, Liss The vanishing face of Gaia. Lovelock,2009 With eight out of ten predictions made being either confirmed or accepted, (this) means that these predictions must carry enough merit for them to be accepted by other professionals. This in turn helps support the Daisyworld model and Gaia. (maybe remove paragraph, adding at end before table that confirm of predicts support daisyworld) It has further been stated within the Daisyworld model that as solar luminosity increases, daises would perish with the increasing temperature, however negative feedbacks dampen these perturbations. This can create issues identifying were (where) some characteristics of an organism had originated, (whether) it be through natural selection or something long term such as evolution. This owes support to the claim, that the world is an interlocking system, coping with a complex interlocking system of feedback loops.This in turn can cause difficulty in isolating the original cause and effect. (Lovelock,1992) P.Saunders theorised that natural selection was not always the crucial factor in a species evolution.When enviomental change occurs, organisms have the chance (to) respond or not at all. If the system reacts as expected, its a regulated system however this regulation can cease. This can cause catastrophic collapse or a shift to a new state from which recovery is possible depending on the rate of shift. Daisyworld surmises that there is another factor involved in the systems self regulation other than natural selection called collective intellegence. Even if this is the case, P.Saunders states that natural selection deals with immediate benefit rather than the long term and insuring stability. This however could be seen as were Gaia could have influence. (Saunders,1994) Shortcomings: One of the main criticisms of Gaia and the Daisyworld model is the claim of planetary regulation through collective intelligence. A further shortcoming of the Daisyworld model has been, that the standard model experiences no greenhouse gases, no atmosphere and no clouds and as such is not representative of claims that the environment intelligently guides/shapes the planet, a real earth system. (Kump et al, 2009) . Furthermore the model uses luminosity in its calculations which is theorized to increase faster than the earths sun which could lead misinterpretations in data. Furthermore although equilibrium is achievable, in the case of the earth system, periods of equilibrium tend to be briefer and more erratic. Another criticism is that a permanent change in luminosity would cause daises to increase across the planet, causing increased albedo and reflectance which could cause a runaway effect. Although this can be witnessed on earth, the Daisyworld system presumes something would be triggered to balance the system. (kump et al,2009) The most significant criticism from various academics to Lovelocks theory is that it is pure conjecture not supported by documented evidence. Lovelock refutes this, citing both evidence he published in his book the vanishing face of Gaia and by insisting random patterns arent coincidental. Instead he insists the planet possesses greater regulatory force through collective intelligence which maintains constant symbiosis between plants, animals and the environment. Furthermore, Dolittle identifies that when a chemical or physical parameter nearly reaches critical levels, the mechanism initiating parameters to allow it to return back to optimum levels are seldom identified. Furthermore there seems to be a lack of consistent results. (Dolittle,1981) A additional shortcoming presented by Richard Dawkins in his work the selfish gene seems to contradict the Daisyworld para-dime.Dawkins states every organism is out for its interests to survive. Through this, there are many individuals that will try different traits to enhance their possible survival and in turn increase the possibility to further the species survival as a whole. The resulting theory is that individuals out for their own benefit try different traits through trail and error, with successful traits incorporated by the species as a whole and so therefore furthering the species existence. (Dawkins,1982) Lovelock counters this by insisting that symbiosis occurs to benefit both individuals and the environment simultaneously with the environment influencing the individual. Dawkins refutes this stating symbiosis is simply a by product of an individual fulfilling its own requirements. Furthermore Dr. W.F.Doolittle insists behaviour isnt genetically written, that instead accidentally balanced feedback loops occur which are fragile and happen by chance. This however conflicts with Lovelocks theory of collective intelligence it instead concludes that life is reliant on several crucial parameters and not that these parameters are manipulable which is implied by Lovelock. (Doolittle,1981) Agreement or debate : Daisyworld has been challenged and debated by several academics from various fields of study. Lovelock believed in hindsight naming his theory Gaia, after the greek godess had a bearing on peoples opinions causing people to reject his theory out of hand and become more resistant. (Lovelock,2000) Furthermore Gaia was criticized for being a teleological system with lifes existence predetermined. Lovelock refutes this stating that he never stated that planetary self regulation was purposeful or contained foresight. (Lovelock,2009) Stephen Jay Gould criticised the theory stating Gaias mechanisms involved in self regulating homeostasis havnt been identified. (Gould,1988) David Abram however refutes this criticism stating that the mechanisms itself are in fact metaphorical and consequentially Stephen Jay Gould had misinterpreted what Lovelock was trying to demonstrate. (Abram,1988) Lovelock reiterates that the connections between various identified mechanisms may never become transparent and this is why the system should be studied in its entirety. He explains his frustration that in other fields this would be accepted as matter of course. (Lovelock,2000) Mathematician R.Feynman backed this rationale further stating that a lack of explanation to the cause and effect of a theory may never be answered mathematically and it is indeed is inevitable in the progression of a theory, that even if answerable this may take time. (Lovelock,2000) Lovelock insists that Gaias biological feedback mechanisms use a process of systemic Darwinian evolution, with organisms that improve their environment survive and thrive better than those who damage theirs. (Lovelock,1979) W.F.Dolittle criticised this stating that nothing in the individuals genome could produce this functionality of intentionally bettering the individuals environment through the feedback process suggested. He therefore refutes Gaia as a scientific theory as the mechanism is unexplained. (Dolittle,1981) In Dawkins book The Extended Phenotype he further refutes this stating organisms are not able to work to a common plan, as foresight and planning would be required. (Dawkins,1982) Biologist L.Margulis and co-founder supports the Gaia hypothesis stating Darwins grand vision was not wrong, only incomplete.   She reiterates Darwin, stating the primary mechanism for selection is the direct competition between individuals for resources of which she expresses that this can be restrictive and lead to a ridged approach towards the subject. She continues by stating that the earths atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithospheres composition are controlled around specific points but that these alter with time. This highlights feedback loops raised in Lovelocks theory further supporting his claims of a level of symbiosis or collective intelligence. Furthermore she states that there is no tendency to preserve habitats and these communities can exist at various degrees of integration. Lovelock also states that although he feels there is a level of symbiosis these fixed points can become tipping points and so therefore no factor is indeed ridged and there is flexibility in the system. This can be seen when a tipping point has be (been) surpassed and the system shifts to a new state. (Margulis, 1999) Conclusion / interpretation : There are many criticisms of lovelocks work involving Daisyworld, one of the most vocal being Richard Dawkins. Dawkins is one of his main critics of his theory of collective intelligence with the biosphere and evolution of the organisms contributing to form a stable planet. Dawkins instead favours the gene as a unit of selection, in contrast with Lovelock. This approach, however has been criticised as misleading and should instead be described as a unit of evolution. Further criticism is that genes, do not exist alone but instead co-operate with each other both within the individual and its environment. Dawkins, however defends his theory stating that genetic recombination and sexual reproduction from a individual genes view sees all other genes as part of its environment. This view is criticised especially by professionals studying higher levels of selection including D.S.Wilson Co who state that a gene based approach can not satisfactorily explain all life for example altruism. Dawkins approach can be perceived as a restricted approach to understanding the earth system and by not analysing the system as whole results can become fractured and misinterpreted. Furthermore, initially Dawkins did not have any evidence to clarify his theories, he tries to rectify this in his book (which book, ref?). Dawkins states an individual organism is looking out for itself and this is ultimately beneficial for the group. This is because if you have many individuals evolving individually any advantageous behaviour or physical attributes can be passed on to the group as a whole. Furthermore this means that advantageous behaviour and attributes are passed onto the group quicker. In conclusion,Lovelock believes that to obtain accurate results we must look at the earth system as a whole this was why he created the Daisyworld model in order to explain the concept of Gaia and to counter criticism towards the theory. Lovelock stated that Daisyworld was never intended to be comparable to a real earth system, especially as the model didnt have an atmosphere and was basic in its formation. He instead created Daisyworld as he perceived that other academics were misinterpreting Gaia and its function and so Daisyworld should simply be a means of explaining the processes on earth and how everything is interconnected. Lovelock confirmed this by stating that Daisyworld was a cybernetic proof of the Gaia hypothesis (Kirchner,2003) Lovelock argued that other theories for example climate change involve a level of uncertanty and as such is widely understood as a young feild of research where inaccreatces can occur with out the theory, being dismissed out of hand. Lovelock states his fustration to this, that Gaia and the Daisyworld model are not afforded the same grace. It is seen in the original model that it was reductional, lacked variability and seemed to have limited comparability to the real earth system. However, this model has extended to include increased species diversity and variability and has included the additional parameters to allow organisms to spontaneously mutate. With these additions, this increases variability into the system which increases the systems credibility by producing more accurate results than the original system. This style of progression can be seen within climate change modeling, where better understanding and increased variability into the system, create a more accurate model moving forward. This however, takes time and as understanding increases so will the model evolve with it. Support for Daisyworld model, highlights the inclusive whole system approach in contrast to some scientists which views can be perceived by some as reductionist, bottom up approach for example Richard Dawkins. It should be appreciated that Daisyworld and more importantly Gaia is trying to create an inclusive model. Furthermore some academics have misinterpreted Daisyworld as the theory and have included some of Daisyworlds shortcomings when evaluating Gaia. Instead, Daisyworld should be seen as just a way of explaining Gaia. Although there are some inaccuracies and shortcomings of Gaia, the theory has already demonstrated that it can evolve over time and as such inaccuracies should be addressed The Gaia hypothesis has seen eight out of ten predictions confirmed or accepted, some have taken time to be proven for example the biological transfer of selenium from the ocean to the land, this was confirmed in 2000, 21 years after the Gaia hypothesis was formulated. This indicates that with some factors have been proven, others will take time to be confirmed. Another advantage of the system is that natural selection is accepted by all academics with the field but it has been realised that natural selection may not answer all outcomings. Therefore it is suggested that Gaia would be evolved in the long term and insuring stability. There are, however some factors that have the possibility of creating miscalculations for example the use of luminosity, which is suspected to be increasing faster than our sun which may lead to misinterpretations. One further, debated shortcoming is that equilibrium is achievable and that when a runaway effect is caused a balance is expected to come into force. In the real earth system equilibrium can be achievable but it is possible that it would be harder to detect in a real earth system for example for a brief period. There are still issues when a chemical or physical parameter is nearly reached, with the mechanism initialising parameters to return to normal seldom identified. The Daisyworld Para-dime isnt inherently wrong. The general principle of the Daisyworld Para-dime is a reasonable proposition. The belief that the world regulates itself on a global scale less so. Instead it is more reasonable to expect the small interactions between species, the environment and so on to balance the system. To illustrate, if the amount of Daisies increase the amount of rabbits one be expected (the opposite would be expected) to as well, cause and effect. Lovelocks general theory that when investigating the environmental effect on the planet, in order to get accurate results it should when ever possible be research in a multi disciplined co-operative approach in order to obtain both correct results and to obtain a fuller picture. Lovelocks theory of planetary regulation is correct but it is seen from the the individual species level, for example if the amount of indivdual cows increase, the level of methane that these cows produce will increase the levels in the atmosphere which could increase the level of warming of the planet. Daisyworld is a simplified representation model consisting of many connections, however how these components interact together is hard to calculate with an infinite amount of variables.It is possible to make a calculated assumption on how the earth will evolve but this is a ever developing topic with greater understanding increasing over time. For now I can only present my conclusion of whether Daisyworld is a flawed system and whether the method carrys any merit when explaining how earth develops over time. Daisyworld (the planet) has the capacity to remain stable even with components that fluctuate and organism becoming extinct, thus meaning that the small componets can change even though the planet stays the same as a whole. However due to the nature Daisyworld it only has a limited capacity of modelling prediction. Daisyworld is a basic model to attempt to explain some of the fundamental interactions in a earth focused system,it however lacks detail. We can, however see a more sophisticated detailed version of the kind of processes that can be seen in the Daisyworld system in modem climate change models. These climate change models are calculated by sophisticated computers which it has been stated that even with this level of sophistication it would still require both a great deal of space and time in order to calculate all eventual probabilities (get the number) In lovelocks most recent book The revenge of Gaia Lovelock states that Gaia is finding it increasingly difficult to minimise impact experiencing bigger losses than before, to the rainforests, planetary diversity and this is testing its ability to minimize the effects off additional greenhouse gases and increases the probability of homeostatic positive feedback associated with global warming. This new stance from Lovelock seems that he is trying to express that the balance that we once had is now being lost. This means that in the real earth system the greenhouse effect in Daisyworld terms would give a positive radiative forcing effect. This isnt modelled within Daisyworld, as Daisyworld has no atmosphere the planet would be considerably warmer with an atmosphere than without. The earth system is a dynamic system that changes over time which holds widespread agreement amongst the scientific community, this in itself means that we will always discover new facts about the planet and this will always be evolving. My assessment. there is a feed back between the daisys and the enviroment that helps regulation. the main fault with daisyworld is that the enviroment concusly adjusts this is instead a reaction to whats happening at a lower level. i dont believe this is what lovelock is trying to say instead this has been misconstuded as such. we can see that fluctation has allways happened and that the planet, as a whole has been able to regulate itself. the earth however has been less able to do this in recent years, this also has been true in history when there have been tiping points where the earth has not been able to regulate itself or maintain a level state. in my opinion, trying to be objective, i believe that the factors in which lovelock used may not exactly be correct or appropreate for example the use of luminosity and the planet having no atmosphere. however, i do firmly believe that lovelocks work has been dismissed by a section of individuals because of these shortcomings within the daisyworld model. Lovelock to his credit, has clearly stated on numerous occasions that daisyworld is not the the theory and as such should not be representative of a real earth system and was instead designed to simply explain the gaia theory. i do feel that lovelocks downfall was the fact that daisyworld was lacking in the detail and that this should have been looked at further before publicising. My conclusion is that daisyworld should not be directly used to calculate the real earth system, as it was never designed to do this. However, daisyworld is a perfect illustation of the gaia hypothesis and works efficently to illustrate the principles of gaia. It should be used as a aid in order to learn the theory. Gaia, itself seems to be gaining increasing merit but along with climate change modelling, there is an understanding that modeling will evolve in time and i believe this is the same with gaia.

A Theory of Justice Presented by John Rawls Essay -- inequalities, f

In A Theory of Justice John Rawls presents his argument for justice and inequality. Rawls theorizes that in the original position, a hypothetical state where people reason without bias, they would agree to live in a society based on two principles of justice (Rawls 1971, 4). These two principles of justice are named the first and second principles. The first is the equal rights and liberties principle. The second is a combination of the difference principle and the fair equality of opportunity principle, or FEOP (Rawls 1971, 53). Rawls argues that inequality will always be inevitable in any society (Rawls 1971, 7). For example, there will always be a varied distribution of social and economic advantages. Some people will be wealthier than others and some will hold places of greater importance in society. Rawls’s argument is that to ensure the stability of society the two principles of justice are needed to govern the assignment of rights and regulate the inequality (Rawls 1971 , 53). Any infringement of an individuals rights or inequality outside the parameters of the principles of justice are unjust. In order to understand Rawls, one has to understand the theoretical concept of the original position. It lays the groundwork for Rawls’s argument by providing a foundation for society. Calling it a state where people reason without bias is a very general definition that does not at all fully explain all of the different aspects of the original position. The original position, according to Rawls, has to do with a social contract (Rawls 1971, 11). People agree to rules in society that are pursuant to their own general well being. However, they decide on these rules behind what Rawls calls a veil of ignorance. Behind this veil of ignor... ... his principles of justice to evaluate such an inequality. If rights were not being infringed then he would immediately move on to the second principle criteria. In this scenario, if the workers were getting the greatest benefit then the inequality presented would be justified. For example, if the corporation were putting the increased profits into safer equipment for its workers, or providing insurance, compensation, etc. then it could be said that the inequality is justified. However, if the corporation were keeping it’s profits then the workers are least advantaged, but not getting the greatest benefit, so the inequality would be unjust in Rawls eyes. Allowing the inequality to continue would lead to instability in society and it would violate Rawls’s principles. â€Æ' Works Cited Rawls, John. A Theory of Justice. Cambridge, MA: Belknap of Harvard UP, 1971. Print.

Overlooked Renassaince Painters :: Baccio della Porta Fra Bartolommeo Art Essays

Overlooked Renassaince Painters Even the average person with little or no background in art may have heard the names Leonardo da Vinci, Michaelangelo, or Raphael. Not only because they are the most famous and noteworthy painters, sculptors, draughtsmen, designers, and inventors of the high renaissance, but also because of the countless stories and movies, fact and fiction which included these men and at least mentioned their importance, relevance, and influences on today'7s world. Many children have grown up already knowing these names, and perhaps that they were artists however simplistic that may be, after the explosion of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles in the late eighties. Perhaps there is one high renaissance artist who does not always recieve due credit, but who was influencial just the same. One such artist was Baccio della Porta, a Florentine renaissance painter. Baccio della Porta was born in Florence, Italy in 1472. As historians know, most artists went into apprenticeship at about the age of eleven or twelve at this time in Florence. Taking this into account, it is assumed that Baccio did become an apprentice of Cosimo Rosselli at that age since he was well known in his workshop by 1485. Baccio della Porta's master or teacher, Cosimo Rosselli, had probably just returned from his work in Rome in the Sistine Chapel. It is also known that the average length of time for an artist's apprenticeship was about six to eight years, putting Baccio on his own around 1490. According to many modern art historians, Vasari is the most reliable source of information on the life and works of Fra Bartolommeo after he entered the Dominican Order and became a brother.3 Baccio della Porta and a pier of his, as well as a fellow student of the arts, Mariotto Albertinelli became intimate friends during their apprenticeships. Following their apprenticeship the two decided to work proffesionally together at the home of Baccio della Porta. They made this decision to work together in 1491, but their "partnership" and friendship apparently ended when they went their own ways in styles and choices of schools to follow and associate with. Baccio della Porta joined the followers of Savonarolas, Mariotto associated with the Medici followers, specifically working for the patron Alfonsina Orsini who was the wife of Piero de ' Medici.

Usefullness of Mathematics in Everyday Life Essay -- Math Mathematics

Usefullness of Mathematics in Everyday Life G H Hardy once said that "Very little of mathematics is useful practically, and that little is comparatively dull". This statement is blatantly incorrect. Mathematics appears in virtually all fields in some form or another, and it is the only truly universal language. Even fields considered the opposite of mathematics, such as literature, are filled with different forms of math. Music is based very heavily on numbers, and even religions hold different numbers as sacred. Of course one could say that all these examples are merely basic arithmetic. What about higher mathematics? Can we really use algebra, probability, calculus or any other higher form of math in today's society? The answer to that question is a resounding "Yes!" Even higher mathematics has been and is still used in all sorts of fields, and it is the purpose of this paper to show just a few ways in which higher math has been applied to life. First of all, no discussion about the uses of higher mathematics in the real world would be complete without mentioning something that happened over sixty years ago. On September 3, 1939, Britain and France declared war on Germany in response to their invasion of Poland. To combat their new enemies, Germany quickly sent a land army to overrun France, and then prepared to take on England. Hitler's plan to defeat this small island was to stop all resources from getting through to them, effectively starving them into surrender. The Nazi army had a very effective weapon with which they could challenge the British supremacy of the waves, the U-boat. The German submarines wreaked havoc on the British supply routes, and Churchill knew that if a way couldn't be found to stop the German s... ...they owe the government and how to pay the least. Nearly all people on earth are affected by math everyday. Without mathematics, it is very possible that the Allies would have lost WW2 and we'd all be speaking German right now. Countless buisnesses would be alterred or totally gone if mathematics was not around. A world without math would certainly be a very different world to live in. Works Cited: [1] Davis, Donald M. The nature and power of mathematics. Princeton, N.J. : Princeton University Press, c.1993. [2] Prabhu, N. U. Stochastic storage processes : queues, insurance risk, dams, and data communication. New York : Springer, c.1998. [3] Stewart, James. Calculus: Early Trancendentals. Thomson Learning. Stanford, CT. 2001. [4] PBS Online c.1996-2001 WGBH Educational Foundation. Update Nov. 2000. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ <October 11, 2001>

Fall On Your Knees Essay

* It is the story of James Piper, orphaned child, who becomes a piano tuner. When James was 18, he met Material, 13, and they elope to the close by village. Materia’s family were against her marriage. James then has three daughters, Kathleen, Mercedes, and Frances. James was a good man, but slowly dark side of his nature asserted itself. He serves in France during the Great War to make money. But the war comes to an end. He returns to his family. Kathleen is dispatched to New York City to study opera, she gets pregnant and later finds a lesbian partner. James finds out and brings his daughter back. Soon he is widower and Kathleen dies while giving birth to the twins. Mercedes tries her best to be the mother of Frances and her niece Lily, Kathleen’s daughter. Ambrose, Kathleen’s son is killed by Frances accidentally. Frances goes completely off track and starts doing prostitution to make money for Lily. Frances also gets pregnant and stops prostitution. James dies later on and everything depends on Mercedes since Frances is in a big shock. Later on, Lily goes to New York and Frances dies. Mercedes sends Ambrose, France’s son to New York. * Sacrifices are made by a lot of people in the whole universe for the sake of people who they love. In Ann – Marie Macdonald’s Fall on Your Knees, James and his family sacrifice important things that they desire or want for the sake of their family. Through the use of characterization, symbols and diction, Macdonald shows that healthy sacrifices benefit everyone. Similarly in Hamlet by William Shakespeare, Sacrifice is shown throughout the play for the benefit of self or others that they love or want. This is also shown by Shakespeare by using the above elements, which proves that the sacrifices that are made for the benefit of everyone will lead to the happy ending. Characterization is used to show the decisions that are made for the benefits of other or self. In Fall on Your Knees, people make decisions that benefit others which have huge impact in their life, while in Hamlet, the decisions that are made are for the benefits of self for which someone else has to pay. * There are many characters in Fall on Your Knees that choose to live for the sake of others. One of them is Kathleen. Kathleen is a great singer who poses beauty and singing talent but she has no friends and is not even close to her mother. The only friend that she has is her father. She gave up everything that she could have just for the sake of her daddy. She wants to be singer just because her daddy wants her to be famous, so people can appreciate her talent. â€Å"At first she did it for daddy’s sake† (Macdonald 99). This shows that Kathleen gave up her whole childhood and teenage moments that she could have for herself for the sake of daddy. She never goes anywhere by herself. Later, James sends her to USA to study Opera. And she agrees without even saying anything. * Similarly her sister, Mercedes also sacrifices her educations and her future for the sake of family. Mercedes is a good girl who is taking the role of mother for her sisters. â€Å"Mercedes is so accustomed to doing everything for Daddy’s sake† (299). Mercedes does not tell her father about her dream of going to university. She knows that her father will be all alone if she leaves him. She buries her dream in her heart, so she stays home and takes care of the family. * Similarly in Hamlet, Hamlet sacrifices his future and his love for the sake of his father. He needs to take revenge. Hamlet is always sad and depressed since his father is no more. When he found that his uncle was the murderer of his father, he promised the ghost to take revenge for his father’s death. To accomplish his motive, he gave up the love of his life, Ophelia, so he can have no weaknesses. â€Å"You should not have believed me; for virtue cannot so/ inoculate our old stock but we shall relish of it. I loved you/ not. † (III. 1. 128-130). Hamlet is refusing that he never loved Ophelia. He also used her to confuse Claudius. * Kathleen has never got love from anyone else except her daddy, whose love also changes after coming from war. This causes her to crave for love. The crave for the love leads to many ironies such as her turning into a lesbian and eventually her death. However, this is not same for Mercedes. Even though Mercedes is not pursuing her education any further, she is learning to be a responsible women and she does not marry in the future because she needs to take care of her sisters and her father. She is gaining even though she is giving up something. Whereas, Hamlet’s sacrifice caused Ophelia to not trust Hamlet anymore and later on in the play, that lead to her death. * The other element that has been used is symbolism. Symbolism is used to show what each character has become because of the decisions that they choose to make. In both texts, there are a lot of symbols that represents the characters or the meaning of their life. * In fall on your knees, darkness is used to represent the sacrifices that the characters make without knowing the consequences. They do not know what lies ahead and what the result might be for taking that action. But, they continue to do it because they feel that they need to do it. The other symbol that is used is monster. It is used to represent Materia. It represents Materia because she has become a monster while searching for the happiness of the family. â€Å"Materia saw herself in a clear glass at last and it was Monstrous. † This shows that even she knows that she has turned into a monster. Materia thinks that she is happy without her daughter. She does not want her daughter to come back. She is ready to sacrifice her own daughter for the family’s happiness. This is similar to the monster since monsters are ready to eat their own children to fill their own stomach when needed. The other symbol that is used in the novel is scarecrow. Scarecrow is used to represent the memories that they had in the past. It was made by Materia. James tears it down because he does not want to remember his past since there had been a lot of incidents that have happened in his life. He wants to live without having to remember his past. * Similarly in Hamlet, sponge is used to represent Rosencrantz. Hamlet thinks that Rosencrantz is giving up his friendship to suck up to the King. He feels betrayed by his own friend. He calls Rosencrantz a sponge when he says â€Å"Besides, to be demanded of a sponge! † (IV. . 12). Since, he has become a messenger that acts as a carrier of messages and spills it in front of King, Rosencrantz collects all the information like a sponge collects water and spills it in front of a king, similar to how water spills off the sponge when it is squeezed. * In Fall on Your Knees, Materia meets her consequences when she was finally able to love Kathleen. She has to sacrifice Kathleen just so the twins can see the new world. As well as James lived a happy life in the future where he didn’t had to think about his past and died in peace. Similar to Materia, Rosencrantz is sent to England where he is to be executed with his friend, Guildenstern, as soon as he reaches there. * The last element that is used is diction. Diction is used to show the consequences of the sacrifices that are made by the characters for their benefit, where someone else pays the price of their sacrifice, or for the benefit of someone else, where they pay the price by themselves. The choices of their decisions give the characters several names in the both texts. * James is a widower. He has to take care of mother less children since his wife died. He needs to make money in the Great Depression time, so he does things that give him bad name. People in the town say â€Å"Mercedes’ father [James] was a bad man. A bootlegger. A scab. An enemy of this town† (232) He makes and sells illegal liquor in the town that gives him bad reputation. He is being called a â€Å"bootlegger†, â€Å"scab† and â€Å"enemy of the town† because of the illegal business that he does. But he does not care about what the other people say, because he needs to make money to support his family financially. He sacrifices his reputation in the town for the sake of family. Similarly, the business that Frances does is not giving her a good reputation that she wants. She becomes everything of Lily, her niece, whom she calls sister. Frances blames herself for Lily being disabled. She wants to make money for her, so she starts selling herself and becomes a stripper because she thinks that is the fastest way to make money. She becomes so bad that Camille calls her â€Å"The slut who lives only to dishonour the memory of poor Materia. † (316). This shows that Frances has been selling her stuff that she got bad reputation in the town. She does all this because she feels as if this is needed to do for the sake of Lily, since Frances thinks that Lily might need these money in future. * Similarly in Hamlet, Polonius does everything that he can to suck up to the King, no matter what happens. He is even ready to sacrifice his own daughter, Ophelia. This is one reason why hamlet calls him â€Å"Excellent well; you are a fishmonger† (II. 2. 190). Polonius is called a â€Å"fishmonger†, because he can sacrifice his own daughter to curry the King as much as he possibly can. He does this just to show how much he can be trusted. This keeps on hurting Ophelia and causes her to go through more pain even though Polonius is considered a trustable person by the king. * James dies without even having any friend because whatever he does for his family is affecting everyone in the town which makes the people in town hate him more. Similarly, Frances is never loved by anyone except Mercedes and Lily. At the end, the money comes to use of Lily, but to earn that money; Frances had to go through a lot of pain. Similarly, Ophelia goes through a lot of pain since she was being used by her father to curry the king. This attitude of sucking up to the King decides Polonius’s destiny and he gets killed. * In conclusion, there are a lot of different decisions that affect the whole novel later on. While some of them are good choices, some of them are bad that they decide to do for the sake of someone or self. This is shown by the use of narrative elements such as characterisation, symbolism and diction, which all show the choices that they made and the result of those choices. Even though we all make decisions and sacrifices in our life, one will learn whether the sacrifices that they made were worth of making or not after the sacrifice has been made.

Movie Review on 12 O’Clock High

At the fall outset of the film, everyday beastly is charged by his superordinate with a daunting task modify the already dismal morale of the 918th, thus fly those crews on daylight clearcutness raids until they cant fly to each one much. One of the central themes of the film is the enquire as to how untold stress a man can really take, and how full general shell aims to push his men to that limitation and beyond, if necessary. When ferocious takes over the 918th, the morale is low, scarcely the men are fiercely hard-core to Col. Davenport, from whom oecumenical cruel takes command.Because he has been truehearted missions with the men and utilizing a participative take to the woods style, Davenport catch outs primary how much is creation asked of them, and sympathizes with their plight. He has seen the mop up of battle, and he believes far too much is being asked of his crews by his command. Because he feels this way, enlighten in the ranks begins to p art by down, and his crews purposefully mould illness so they wont occupy to squeeze. The over- identification or philanthropy Davenport feels for his men makes him an ineffective leader, because he is non able to push them to complete their objectives as his command requires.His crews are loyal to him, alone if it is obvious they do non watch over him as a leader. Recognizing a demand for a structural qualify, General Savage enters, and hes given a clear set of objectives and has the weight-lift go forth to see them done. The transmute in leadership (from participative leadership to executive leadership) has led to emulation as it appears as though that iron will drives the men to seek transfers as Savage seeks to enforce discip outline and right to form a cohesive fight unit. It is interesting to note that at first, he appears to want to unite them against him, and he succeeds.They do all request transfers, and select a spokesman to tamp down out conversations be tween them and General Savage while the transfers are being carried out. But Savage has a large plan one that involves the crews seeing rough kind, any kind of success on the battlefield. He buys scarcely about clipping with the transfers, and begins to impart on producing incontrovertible results for the unit. He started with act bombing deports with the crews to spend a penny them ready for warn status. When the term finally comes, he wing with his crews and initiates a successful bombing run on German positions.When comparing and separate the leadership styles of the two men who lead the 918th, there is al most(prenominal) no comparison. charm Davenport has the unwavering loyalty of his men and most will do anything for him, they quickly deliver that they are whole willing to go so far under his command. perhaps they feel they can get out-of-door with a little bit much under his command because he is a sympathetic figure, which is why so many an(prenominal) of them fake illness to get out of their bombing runs. Savage, on the other hand, has an severe leadership style, and is cl premature prepared to reach anyone at any time in order to achieve his objectives.At first, he nigh ends up losing the entire 918th, as his strategy is a gamble much than anything else. He is hoping that by bringing them unitedly against him, that they eventually will fight for him (and fight harder at that) when they finally savoring many success. This is born out by the iterate daylight bombing runs the crews are hale to undertake to in order to find the commands objectives and each time they go out, they are far more successful under Savage than they ever were under Davenport.Davenport, while able to get his men to fight well for him, is neer able to push his men beyond their limits, because they know he will give-up the ghost down and side with them when they refuse. Conversely, General Savage does not accept quitters, and confines the conquer of them to one particular plane (The Leper Colony) to kick upstairs that point. In creating the Leper Colony, Davenport is instituting reverse phycology to create a change in behavior. Members of The Leper Colony were cognize to be some of the strongest fighters within the 918th as displayed by Gately who flew three missions with cracked vertebrae. tour Savage initially was able to life his personal feelings out of the situation he found himself in, he became increasingly cadaverous in with the men, and found himself beginning to chance upon and become out of balance just as Davenport was. The best example of this was the stowaways on the planes, and Savages response to them. Had he not been more emotionally involved, he would have been part able to edge out punishment, instead of largely dismissing the actions of the stowaways after the missions.In my assessment of Savage, it appears as though he will not only be unsuccessful, but end up a dismal failure in trying to rally the crews to his cause. Its not until the end of the movie where I see the successes pile up, and Savage is vindicated finished his approach to group leadership and discipline. Savage taught the 918th several things about commitment, team forge, and success. He taught them to work as a team, be conciliative in order to achieve better performance, take risks, as well as prepare for long term- effectiveness by allowing other members in the unit to carry the load at distinguishable times.Also, he did a bang-up job in demonstrating the core tasks of change leadership arrest and Commutate Purpose, Establish Demanding Performance Goals, modify Upward Communication, Forge an Emotional perplex between Employees and the Organization, and Develop Future sort Leaders. In my own experiences, I was approach with improving efficiencies in my area by 20%. Past results had yielded an improvement of 12%. subsequently completing some line observations, I realized that we could gain 6% by no t stopping the lines for breaks.This change was extremely unfavorable because the colleagues were accustomed to pickings breaks with their friends. Additionally, I noticed that the standard for break time was being abused as colleagues were taking 6 extra proceedings per break as well as stopping the lines 10 minutes early at the end of the shift. I explained that if they proceed to abuse the break policy as well as stopping the lines early that I would follow the disciplinary process. This change in behavior gave area an additional 7% increase inefficiencies. Finally, the reaction time from maintenance to equipment breakdown needed to be improved.I implemented a workaday downtime meeting to discuss the reasons why the equipment was down. After 1 month of having daily meetings, the incision saw a decrease in equipment downtime and my efficiencies went up another 10%. throughout this process, I had colleagues requesting a transfer to different areas and I became well acquainted with piece Resources. After achieving an efficiency increase of almost 25%, the people who worked with me enjoyed being a part of a team that produced positive results and would say she was hard to work with in the beginning, but she rewards you well in the end. In conclusion, this film is interesting in the adore that it shows two very distinct styles of leadership, and where each may fail in the naturally of job execution. While Davenport initially has some success, the film eloquently shows that he is only able to get so much out of his crews because of his close relationship to them. Savage, on the other hand, winds up getting more out of his crews than Davenport ever did, but he almost loses them at the outset of his engagement because of his almost merciless command style.So from viewing this film, we can see that success in leadership probably lies somewhere in the middle and knowing when to discipline your style is key ultimately, we want to get the most out of the peo ple we have to lead, without having them revolt and wreck the larger objective. Savage succeeded because he ultimately gave his crews a taste of victory and something to fight for, which ultimately characterizes and quantifies what great leaders and leadership really are.

Panacetin Lab Write Up

research testing groundoratory report card Format for Separating the Components of Panacetin (2) and Recrystallization and Melting Point Measurement Identifying the Components of Panacetin (3). laboratory Notebook Title and Date Objective apologise the purpose of the try out and how you plan to accomplish it. proficiency showing the use of separatory funnel and evaporation of root setup Reaction(s) Include the main reaction for the experiment and isolation scheme somatogenetic Data tendency the molecular weight, melt point, boiling point, density, solubility, and hazards of all clever chemicals used in the experiment.Data/Observations Your observations of the experiment, a. cargo of sign panacetin sample. b. tip of sucrose collected. c. Weight of aspirin collected. d. Weight of terra incognita sharpen isolated e. Weight of recrystallized unappreciated compound f. Melting point range of recrystallized nameless compound. g. tender loving care sketches with appropriat e entropy for Rf calculations (Clearly set each column of spots on the varlet so I know what it is) h. involved melting point based on development from TLC Final Report ? Title Page.Include (1) the epithet of the experiment, (2) your name, (3) the due date, and (4) the date submitted ? Purpose of the Experiment. ? Background/ apparatus ( 1 page) ? Discuss extraction theory and explain the general operation of the equipment ? formulate the theory hind end isolation scheme ? justify the purpose of recrystillization ? map reference the subroutine (i. e. text or handout) and either changes that deviated from the original reference ? Data and Results o Physical description for substance(s) isolated o Weight of initial panacetin sample. o o o o o o o o oWeight of sucrose collected. Weight of aspirin collected. Weight of unknown compound isolated Weight of recrystallized unknown compound Melting point range of recrystallized unknown compound. Mixed melting point based on informa tion from TLC TLC Cross reference with lab notebook Rf values from TLC (including the firmness used) Percent recovery of sucrose, aspirin and your unknown ? Calculations Show sample calculations of the percent recoveries of sucrose, aspirin and your unknown and Rf calculations. ? Discussion. What was the identity of your unknown?Explain in stage how you determined it, comparing the data you obtained with known values. Explain any discrepancies. (1 page) ? Conclusion brief statement with concluding conclusion (restating the goal of the lab and summarizing important data showing that the goal was or was not achieved) ? Excercises Lab 2 questions 1,3,5 Lab 31 and 2 Additional Question Where in the separation procedure could you lose one or more of the Panacetin components? Explain which component could be lost in which step. thin trace amounts left in containers, or vociferous spills.